Assumptions –
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Learning is the basis of all behaviour.
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Learning is always about internal behaviour and it leads either to more effective behaviour, known as adaptive behaviour or to maladaptive behaviours.
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It is billed as an experimental investigation that employs cognitive, social, and condition learning theory principles.
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An individual can be studied in terms of observable behaviour.
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Behaviour can be overt and covert in terms of intensity, frequency, and duration.
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Learning occurs in response to extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement.
There are two Learning theories –
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Classical conditioning
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Operant conditioning
1.Classical conditioning –
In classical conditioning, a new stimulus becomes capable of evoking a given response because the new stimulus is presented together with the stimulus that already evokes the response.
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Response generalisation – Two or more responses are evoked by the same stimulus because these responses occur in closed temporal contiguity or because the two responses are perceived as similar.
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Stimulus generalisation –Stimuli that look alike become capable of eliciting a given response.
2.Operant conditioning –
B. F. Skinner focused on the role of reward or reinforcement in learning and described the process as open rent and instrumental conditioning.
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Discriminating stimulus – When the response was reinforced in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of another, the response tended to occur in the presence of the former and not the letter.
The former stimulus, known as a discriminative stimulus, is said to act as a cue, telling the person when to respond correctly.
When the stimulus and response are repeatedly paired but without the reward, the response seizes and an extension is said to occur.
Techniques –
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Reinforcements
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TOOTS (Time out on the spot )
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Shaping
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Chaining
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Modelling
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Token economy
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Generalisation
1.Reinforcement –
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Reinforcement refers to an environmental stimulus that rewards or does not reward behaviour.
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Reinforce is anything that when it follows a behaviour increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.
There are three broad categories –
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Consumable reinforcers are things such as candy, cigarettes, fruits, snacks and coffee.
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Social reinforcers include signs of attention, hugs, smiles, pets on the back, verbal prayers, etc.
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Activity reinforcers include the opportunity to engage in a favoured activity. Examples include riding a bike, reading a book, spending time alone, going shopping, and so on.
Types of reinforcements –
1. Positive reinforcement –
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Strengthens behaviour by rewarding the desired behavioural response. Skill development is thus contingent on positive reinforcement.
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Reinforcement can be intrinsic and extrinsic.
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Intrinsic reinforcement includes feeling pride in a job well done.
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Extrinsic responses can be tangible (eg.- food, money, toys, etc.) or non – tangible (eg.- words of encouragement, prayers and hugs).
2. Negative reinforcement –
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It is used to extinguish non-adopt behaviours.
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Punishment is the use of physical or verbal acts to extinguish behaviours that are perceived as not being valuable or appropriate for some children. Punishment is a form of positive reinforcement that causes other children to adopt non-adaptive behaviour, but it can also be a form of negative reinforcement.
3. Vicarious reinforcement –
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It is used to describe learning that occurs through observation.
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It occurs when a child has observed positive and negative reinforcement of behaviour in other children.
Schedule of reinforcement –
1. Continuous reinforcement –
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If the behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs theirs exist continuous reinforcement.
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A continuous reinforcement schedule leads to a rapid acquisition of the behaviour, though it is not an effective schedule for the permanency of the acquisition.
2. Partial reinforcement –
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In a partial reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is only given for some of the time that the behaviour occurs and there is no discernible pattern of when the reinforcement will take place.
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Partial reinforcement is thought to be the strongest form of reinforcement in shaping behaviour.
3. Intermittent reinforcement –
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Intermittent reinforcement is a situation in which a behaviour is reinforced only occasionally.
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This behaviour is the most difficult to extinguish and therefore the most stable as it is maintained by reinforcement that is both intermittent and unpredictable.
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It is based on intervals.
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If it occurs following a given number of correct responses (as for every third or fourth time the behaviour is exhibited), there is a fixed ratio of reinforcement.
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If a behaviour is reinforced at a consistent interval of time (as in every 10 minutes there a fixed interval of reinforcement).
2.TOOTS (Time-Out-On-The-Spot) –
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Time out on the spot is used in a way of neither rewarding nor punishing inappropriate behaviour.
3.Shaping –
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In shaping, any action that is similar to the desired behaviour is reinforced.
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As are successive actions that more closely approximate or lead to the desired response.
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When using shaping, the therapist must begin with the behaviour that the patient is capable of and reinforce small steps towards the final desired goal.
4.Channing –
Two types of Channing–
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Forward chaining
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Backward training
Dressing lower limbs –
Steps:-
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Adjust the pants for a proper fit.
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Hold the pants correctly.
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Put the right leg in the pants.
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Put the left leg in the pants.
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Pull the pants up.
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Secure button and full zip.
1. Forward Chaining –
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In forwarding chaining, the first step is done by the patient while the rest is done by the therapist.
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When the patient learns the first step, he moves on to the next and performs the first two steps while the rest is done by the therapist.
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This continues until the patient learns the entire behaviour.
2. Backward chaining –
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In backward chaining, the last step is done by the patient while the rest is done by the therapist. When the patient learns the last step, he moves on to the previous step and performs the first two steps while the rest is done by the therapist.
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This continues until the patient learns the entire behaviour.
5.Generalisation —
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Generalisation occurs when skills or behaviour learned in one environment can be applied in a similar yet different situation or in another environment.
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Generalisation also occurs when a person is able to adapt by adding extra steps to success.
6.Token economy –
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It is used in mental health.
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The Token economy is an operant conditioning system designed to change behaviour.
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Tokens can be plastic – discs or credit cards that can be punched are tangible rewards given for appropriate designated behaviour.
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They can be exchanged for privileges, for example…– If a hospitalised patient makes his bed, he receives three tokens. A candy bar could cost three tokens, while a house pass could cost twenty tokens.
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While some token economies are only used for positive reinforcement, others are also used for negative reinforcement. Example – fines (When a patient believes they meet the requirement, a token is returned and assessed.)
Advantages of the token economy –
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Tokens reduce the delay between appropriate behaviour and its reward.
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Tokens can be used as a concrete measure of motivation.
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There is an element of choice in that the person has an opportunity to decide how he wishes to spend his tokens.
7.Modelling –
(This is explained in psychoanalytical FOR)
